This is a working overview of Epitalon, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-07-31 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
The published literature is dominated by a small number of research groups, much of it in Russian-language journals, and independent replication outside those groups is limited. Studies are typically small, use cultured cells or rodent models, and report endpoints that differ between papers, which makes comparison difficult. Large randomised human trials have not appeared in the indexed literature. Questions about absorption, distribution and clearance are therefore still treated as open in reviews that mention the compound.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its design traces to epithalamin, a peptide fraction prepared from bovine pineal gland extracts that researchers in Saint Petersburg began investigating in the 1970s. The compound has a molecular formula of C14H22N4O9 and a nominal molecular mass near 390 daltons. It holds no approved drug status in the United States or the European Union, and material sold under this name is generally offered as a research chemical rather than a finished pharmaceutical product.
Proposed mechanisms centre on cell-culture observations rather than a defined receptor interaction. Several reports describe increased expression of the telomerase catalytic subunit after exposure of cultured human cells, and the authors attributed the effect to short peptide fragments entering the nucleus and influencing gene transcription. No receptor for the tetrapeptide has been identified, and the free peptide is expected to be degraded rapidly by plasma peptidases. Whether any measurable fraction reaches intact tissues after administration remains an unresolved question rather than an established finding.
The proposed relationship between epitalon and pineal function is a central part of its background. Khavinson's group reported that short peptides corresponding to regions of larger pineal proteins could influence gene expression in cells. Epitalon was framed as a synthetic analogue of an active fragment rather than a direct isolation product. Whether the tetrapeptide reproduces the effects of the parent extract is an open question, because comparative studies are limited and the parent extract itself is not a single defined substance.
Interest in epitalon is usually discussed within the broader field of short peptide bioregulators, a category that includes other synthetic di-, tri-, and tetrapeptides studied by the same research group. These compounds share a common rationale: that small fragments of tissue-derived proteins can retain biological activity and can be produced reproducibly. The category as a whole remains outside mainstream pharmacological consensus, and epitalon specifically has a limited presence in independent, non-Russian research literature, which shapes how its evidence base is described.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the amino acid sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly or AEDG. It was developed by the Russian researcher Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues during work on peptide bioregulators derived from the pineal gland. The compound is short enough to be produced by standard solid-phase peptide synthesis and is typically handled as a lyophilized white powder. Its small size distinguishes it from larger pineal peptides such as epithalamin, a complex extract from which the tetrapeptide was conceptually derived.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C14H22N4O9 | Synthetic tetrapeptide, four residues |
| Nominal mass | Approximately 390 Da | Free peptide; salt forms differ |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Commonly supplied lyophilised |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in aqueous buffer |
| Typical storage | −20 °C, desiccated | Cold packs used during transport |
Material supplied for laboratory use is normally a lyophilised white to off-white powder that dissolves readily in water and in isotonic saline. Lyophilised cakes are hygroscopic and should be equilibrated to room temperature before opening to limit condensation on the solid. Solutions are typically prepared at milligram-per-millilitre concentrations and divided into single-use aliquots, because repeated freeze–thaw cycles degrade short peptides. Aqueous solutions are far less stable than the dry powder, and identity is usually verified by mass spectrometry alongside purity estimation from reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
Published evidence comes mainly from Russian-language journals and from a single research group, with small sample sizes and limited independent replication. A few laboratories outside that group have examined related peptides and reported weaker or absent telomerase effects, so the central claim is best described as contested rather than settled. Rodent studies report modest changes in some ageing markers and in survival, but designs vary and control conditions are often sparse. No large randomised trial in humans has been published, and long-term safety data in healthy populations are correspondingly thin.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was designed at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology as a short, chemically defined analogue of epithalamin, a fraction obtained from bovine pineal tissue. Small peptide bioregulators of this type formed a long-running line of work there from the 1980s onward. Because the molecule is produced by solid-phase synthesis rather than extraction, its composition is exact and its purity can be measured directly.
Laboratory-grade epitalon is typically supplied as a lyophilized powder. Purity is commonly assessed with reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, often paired with mass spectrometry to confirm molecular identity. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping can provide additional confirmation of sequence. Certificates of analysis for research materials frequently report purity above 95 percent, although the methods behind such figures vary between suppliers. The absence of a pharmacopeial monograph means that no single standardized assay defines the compound, so reported results depend on the analytical protocol chosen.
Storage recommendations center on limiting moisture, heat, and light. The dry powder is generally kept at minus 20 degrees Celsius, and some suppliers recommend minus 80 degrees for long-term archival. Once dissolved, solutions are usually aliquoted and frozen to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, which can promote aggregation or degradation. Aqueous stability depends on pH and concentration, and buffered saline is often preferred over plain water for biological work. Stability data specific to epitalon remain limited, so general peptide-handling practices are applied by analogy rather than from product-specific validation.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and its calculated monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons. The compound does not occur naturally as a free peptide; it is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Because it contains two acidic residues and no basic residues, the neutral form carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. This charge profile influences how the peptide behaves in solution and during chromatographic analysis.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was developed in Russia during the 1980s and 1990s by investigators associated with the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, who studied short peptides as regulators of gene expression and tissue function. The alternative spelling epithalon appears interchangeably in the literature, and the two names refer to the same molecule. Outside Russia it is encountered chiefly as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine, and it holds no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency.
The peptide is a synthetic analogue of epithalamin, a preparation extracted from bovine pineal glands. Investigators sought a short, chemically defined molecule that would reproduce some of the endocrine and gerontological observations attributed to the glandular extract. Proposed mechanisms centre on induction of telomerase activity, an effect reported in cultured human somatic cells in the early 2000s, together with influences on melatonin secretion and neuroendocrine regulation. Those mechanisms remain incompletely characterised, and the reported telomerase response has not been consistently reproduced by independent groups working in comparable systems.
Since DisplayPort's introduction in 2006, it has gained popularity within the computer industry and is featured on many graphics cards, displays, and notebook computers. Dell was the first company to introduce a consumer product with a DisplayPort connector, the Dell UltraSharp 3008WFP, which was released in January 2008. Soon after, AMD and Nvidia released products to support the technology. AMD included support in the Radeon HD 3000 series of graphics cards, and Nvidia first introduced support in the GeForce 9 series starting with the GeForce 9600 GT.
Chest radiography can show pneumothorax, and is indicated if there is chest discomfort or breathing difficulty Computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be indicated when there is severe headache or severe back pain after diving. CT is the most sensitive method to evaluate for pneumothorax. It can be used where barotrauma-related pneumothorax is suspected and chest radiograph findings are negative. Echocardiography can be used to detect the number and size of gas bubbles in the right side of the heart.
Pulmonary hypertension has been gaining recognition as a complication of chronic hereditary and acquired hemolysis. Free hemoglobin released during hemolysis inactivates the vasodilator nitric oxide (NO). Hemolysis also releases arginase that depletes L-arginine, the substrate needed for NO synthesis. This reduces NO-dependent vasodilation and induces platelet activation, thrombin generation, procoagulant factors and tissue factor activation, contributing to the formation of thrombosis. This can lead to esophageal spasm and dysphagia, abdominal pain, erectile dysfunction, systemic hypertension, decreased organ perfusion, promotion of inflammation and coagulation, and thrombosis. Chronic hemolysis may also lead to endothelial dysfunction, heightened endothelin-1-mediated responses and vasculopathy. The release of heme leads to the production of bilirubin and depletion of plasma proteins, such as albumin, haptoglobin, and hemopexin, which may lead to jaundice. It may also lead to increased levels of the heme breakdown product stercobilin in the stool. Splenectomy of those with hemolytic disorders appears to increase risk of developing pulmonary thrombosis. Complications may also arise from the increased workload for the kidney as it secretes erythropoietin to stimulate the bone marrow to produce more reticulocytes (red blood cell precursors) to compensate for the loss of red blood cells due to hemolysis.
== Research == The first-in-human study, a phase 1 trial, was initiated in October 2017 and completed in September 2020 in postmenopausal women with breast cancer. The study investigated oral doses of vosilasarm of 50 mg/day to 150 mg/day, with the maximum tolerated dose found to be 100 mg/day. A phase 1/2 study proposal of vosilasarm for treatment of breast cancer was published in 2023. It will recruit up to 128 patients.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Insulin degludec is an ultralong-acting basal insulin analogue developed by Novo Nordisk. Ultralong-acting insulins are a kind of insulin that can work up to a week. It is administered through subcutaneous injection to assist in controlling blood sugar levels in individuals with diabetes. Its duration of action lasts up to 42 hours, which is significantly longer than other long-acting insulins, such as insulin glargine and insulin detemir, which typically last 18 to 26 hours. This makes insulin degludec a once-daily basal insulin, providing a steady insulin level, in contrast to fast-acting bolus insulins. Insulin degludec is a modified form of insulin in which a single amino acid is deleted compared to human insulin. It is also conjugated to hexadecanedioic acid via a gamma-L-glutamyl spacer at the amino acid lysine at position B29. It is included on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines as an alternative to insulin glargine. In 2022, it was the 138th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4 million prescriptions. Insulin Degludec is currently only produced by Novo Nordisk under the name Tresiba. It is also available under a generic label until the start of 2026.
== Degeneracy of the genetic code == Protein translation involves a set of twenty amino acids. Each of these amino acids is coded for by a sequence of three DNA base pairs called a codon. Because there are 64 possible codons, but only 20-22 encoded amino acids (in nature) and a stop signal (i.e. up to three codons that do not code for any amino acid and are known as stop codons, indicating that translation should stop), some amino acids are coded for by 2, 3, 4, or 6 different codons. For example, the codons TTT and TTC both code for the amino acid phenylalanine. This is often referred to as redundancy of the genetic code. There are two mechanisms for redundancy: several different transfer RNAs can deliver the same amino acid, or one tRNA can have a non-standard wobble base in position three of the anti-codon, which recognises more than one base in the codon. In the above phenylalanine example, suppose that the base in position 3 of a TTT codon got substituted to a C, leaving the codon TTC. The amino acid at that position in the protein will remain a phenylalanine. Hence, the substitution is a synonymous one.
=== Police withdrawal === Swelled by thousands of new recruits and an increasingly sophisticated arsenal of heavy weapons, PLAN undertook more direct confrontations with the security forces in 1973. Insurgent activity took the form of ambushes and selective target attacks, particularly in the Caprivi near the Zambian border. On the evening of 26 January 1973 a heavily armed group of about 50 PLAN insurgents attacked a police base at Singalamwe, Caprivi with mortars, machine guns, and a single tube, man portable rocket launcher. The police were ill-equipped to repel the attack and the base soon caught fire due to the initial rocket bombardment, which incapacitated both the senior officer and his second in command. This marked the beginning of a new phase of the South African Border War in which the scope and intensity of PLAN raids were greatly increased. By the end of 1973, PLAN's insurgency had engulfed six regions: Caprivi, Ovamboland, Kaokoland, and Kavangoland. It also had successfully recruited another 2,400 Ovambo and 600 Lozi guerrillas. PLAN reports from late 1973 indicate that the militants planned to open up two new fronts in central South West Africa and carry out acts of urban insurrection in Windhoek, Walvis Bay, and other major urban centres. Until 1973, the South African Border War was perceived as a matter of law enforcement rather than a military conflict, reflecting a trend among Anglophone Commonwealth states to regard police as the principal force in the suppression of insurgencies.
He played Sigmund Freud's father in Freud: The Secret Passion (1962) with Montgomery Clift in the lead. He was also well known for his story-telling skills, particularly in reinterpreting the Bible. His best-known book, also a television series, is The Book of Witnesses (1971), in which he turned the Gospels into a series of monologues. He also retold dozens of Old Testament and Apocrypha stories in Bible Stories (1968).
=== Ground === Ground stainless steel belts are normally produced with surface roughness ranging from 0.4 μm down to 0.1 μm, with well-rounded edges, and developed for level and straight contour. Such belts are supplied in open lengths, with the ends prepared for welding on site, or in endless condition with a welded joint.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Lila Grace Moss Hack (born 29 September 2002) is an English fashion model. She made her runway debut in 2021 walking for Miu Miu at Paris Fashion Week. She has appeared in on the covers of British Vogue, Vogue Hong Kong, Vogue Japan and Vogue España.
Many of the payloads for oncology ADCs (oADC) are natural product based with some making covalent interactions with their target. Payloads include the microtubulin inhibitors monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE), monomethyl auristatin F (MMAF) and mertansine, DNA binder calicheamicin and topoisomerase 1 inhibitors SN-38 and exatecan resulting in a renaissance for natural product total synthesis. Glucocorticoid receptor modulators (GRMs) represent to most active payload class for iADCs. Approaches releasing marketed GRM molecules such as dexamethasone and budesonide have been developed. Modified GRM molecules have also been developed that enable the attachment of the linker with the term ADCidified describing the medicinal chemistry process of payload optimization to facilitate linker attachment. Alternatives to small molecule payloads have also been investigated, for example, siRNA. More recently, targeted protein degraders have been explored as payloads for antibody conjugates. A 2025 study described a KIF11-directed degrader–antibody conjugate (DAC), in which a cereblon-recruiting degrader was used as the payload to induce antigen-dependent protein degradation and cytotoxicity in preclinical models.
Hydrogen and methane can both be used as alternatives to fossil fuels in internal combustion engines or for power generation. Like MFCs or bioethanol production plants, MECs have the potential to convert waste organic matter into a valuable energy source. Hydrogen can also be combined with the nitrogen in the air to produce ammonia, which can be used to make ammonium fertilizer. Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines. Hydrogen technologies Microbial electrosynthesis Microbial fuel cells Microbial electrolysis carbon capture National Science Foundation The University of Queensland Scientific Blogging [1]
The COVID-19 Immunity Task Force (CITF) was one of the Government of Canada's early efforts to track the 2020 coronavirus pandemic. An external, dedicated secretariat was established in order to maximize the efficiency of the CITF's work. The group terminated its mandate on March 31, 2024. The group terminated its mandate on March 31, 2024. During the four-year period, the CITF provided several purposes and uses for the general Canadian population. The CITF was to use a serology "to survey representative samples of the population for the presence of antibodies to the virus". Trudeau's press release on 23 April 2020, on the initiation of the CCITF listed several goals it would help to achieve notably that it would: establish priorities and oversee the coordination of a series of country-wide blood test surveys that will tell us how widely the virus has spread in Canada and provide reliable estimates of potential immunity and vulnerabilities in Canadian populations. Canada's government funded more than $1 billion for research into how to combat COVID-19 through the CITF.
56. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2009 Dec;60 Suppl 7:191-6. Modulatory effect of gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on angiogenesis in muscle and tendon healing. Brcic L(1), Brcic I, Staresinic M, Novinscak T, Sikiric P, Seiwerth S. Author information: (1)Institute of Pathology, University of Zagreb Medical School, Zagreb, Croatia. Angiogenesis is a natural and complex process controlled by angiogenic and angiostatic molecules, with a central role in healing process. One of the most important modulating factors in angiogenesis is the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 promotes healing demonstrating particular angiogenic/angiomodulatory potential. We correlated the angiogenic effect of BPC 157 with VEGF expression using in vitro (cell culture) and in vivo (crushed muscle and transected muscle and tendon) models. Results revealed that there is no direct angiogenic effect of BPC 157 on cell cultures. On the other hand, immunohistochemical analysis of muscle and tendon healing using VEGF, CD34 and FVIII antibodies showed adequately modulated angiogenesis in BPC 157 treated animals, resulting in a more adequate healing. Therefore the angiogenic potential of BPC 157 seems to be closely related to the healing process in vivo with BPC 157 stimulating angiogenesis by up-regulating VEGF expression.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Epithalamin is a heterogeneous peptide fraction obtained from pineal gland extract and contains many components. Epitalon is a single synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly. Researchers synthesised the shorter peptide while attempting to identify active sequences within the extract.
No endogenous peptide with this exact sequence has been described as a circulating hormone or signalling molecule. The tetrapeptide was designed as a synthetic analogue based on fragments observed in pineal preparations. Any activity discussed in the literature therefore refers to administered material rather than to a natural pool of the compound.
It is not an approved medicine in major jurisdictions and does not appear in the major pharmacopoeias. Material is usually distributed as a research chemical or laboratory reagent. Such labelling places handling responsibility on the purchaser and does not indicate that a regulatory body has reviewed the substance.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide composed of four amino acids: alanine, glutamate, aspartate, and glycine. It is written as Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly. The free peptide has a molecular weight of about 390 daltons and is normally supplied as a lyophilized powder.