Everything below concerns AEDG. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-03-05. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Several names circulate for the same molecule, including epitalon, epithalone, epithalamin tetrapeptide, and the sequence code AEDG. A CAS registry number, 307297-39-8, is commonly cited for it, though catalogue entries should be checked against supplier documentation because mislabelled records occur. In its usual form the peptide carries free amino and carboxyl termini and is neither glycosylated nor lipidated. Researchers distinguish the defined tetrapeptide from epithalamin itself, a crude pineal preparation containing many peptides that is not chemically characterised.
Material supplied for laboratory use is normally a lyophilised white to off-white powder that dissolves readily in water and in isotonic saline. Lyophilised cakes are hygroscopic and should be equilibrated to room temperature before opening to limit condensation on the solid. Solutions are typically prepared at milligram-per-millilitre concentrations and divided into single-use aliquots, because repeated freeze–thaw cycles degrade short peptides. Aqueous solutions are far less stable than the dry powder, and identity is usually verified by mass spectrometry alongside purity estimation from reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
Most experimental work has been carried out in cell culture and animal models. Several reports describe changes in telomerase activity and proliferation in cultured cells, while rodent studies have examined lifespan, melatonin rhythm and reproductive endpoints. Human data remain limited, and much of the published clinical material consists of small trials with incomplete reporting of methods and controls. Whether the cell and animal findings translate into measurable effects in people is an open question, and the mechanistic basis of the reported telomerase changes is not fully established.
Discussions in the literature often conflate three distinct entities: the pineal extract epithalamin, the isolated tetrapeptide AEDG, and commercial preparations sold under similar names. Reviews citing older Russian-language studies sometimes omit detail on purity, route of administration and control groups, which makes cross-study comparison difficult. Researchers working with the compound generally note the need for independent replication, standardized enzyme assays, and clearer reporting of peptide identity. These caveats are relevant when weighing claims that appear in secondary sources rather than in primary reports.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Amino acid sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Linear tetrapeptide, also written AEDG |
| Molecular mass | About 390.35 g/mol | Value calculated from the sequence |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilised material forms a loose cake |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in isotonic saline |
| Storage | -20 °C, desiccated | Aliquot solutions to avoid freeze–thaw cycling |
Proposed mechanisms centre on cell-culture observations rather than a defined receptor interaction. Several reports describe increased expression of the telomerase catalytic subunit after exposure of cultured human cells, and the authors attributed the effect to short peptide fragments entering the nucleus and influencing gene transcription. No receptor for the tetrapeptide has been identified, and the free peptide is expected to be degraded rapidly by plasma peptidases. Whether any measurable fraction reaches intact tissues after administration remains an unresolved question rather than an established finding.
The published literature is dominated by a small number of research groups, much of it in Russian-language journals, and independent replication outside those groups is limited. Studies are typically small, use cultured cells or rodent models, and report endpoints that differ between papers, which makes comparison difficult. Large randomised human trials have not appeared in the indexed literature. Questions about absorption, distribution and clearance are therefore still treated as open in reviews that mention the compound.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was developed in Russia during the 1980s and 1990s by investigators associated with the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, who studied short peptides as regulators of gene expression and tissue function. The alternative spelling epithalon appears interchangeably in the literature, and the two names refer to the same molecule. Outside Russia it is encountered chiefly as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine, and it holds no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency.
The peptide is a synthetic analogue of epithalamin, a preparation extracted from bovine pineal glands. Investigators sought a short, chemically defined molecule that would reproduce some of the endocrine and gerontological observations attributed to the glandular extract. Proposed mechanisms centre on induction of telomerase activity, an effect reported in cultured human somatic cells in the early 2000s, together with influences on melatonin secretion and neuroendocrine regulation. Those mechanisms remain incompletely characterised, and the reported telomerase response has not been consistently reproduced by independent groups working in comparable systems.
The peptide emerged from research carried out in Saint Petersburg from the late 1980s onward, where investigators searched for shorter active fragments of a pineal preparation known as epithalamin. The name epitalon was chosen to reflect that parent extract. Early reports described effects on neuroendocrine markers and on the lifespan of laboratory animals. Much of that work appeared in Russian-language journals, with English translations following later, which affects how readily the original protocols can be assessed by outside groups.
Published studies on epitalon are dominated by a small number of research groups, and independent replication in other laboratories remains limited. Proposed mechanisms include activation of telomerase and modulation of melatonin rhythms, but the evidence for either rests mainly on cell cultures and animal models. Whether the peptide produces comparable effects in humans is an open question, and the absence of large controlled trials means the literature is best read as exploratory rather than settled.
Epitalon is a synthetic four-amino-acid peptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9, and its calculated molar mass is approximately 390.35 grams per mole. The compound is a short fragment related to a peptide fraction isolated from bovine pineal gland extracts, and it is normally supplied as a lyophilised powder intended for laboratory research. It is not a registered pharmaceutical product in most countries.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was designed at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology as a short, chemically defined analogue of epithalamin, a fraction obtained from bovine pineal tissue. Small peptide bioregulators of this type formed a long-running line of work there from the 1980s onward. Because the molecule is produced by solid-phase synthesis rather than extraction, its composition is exact and its purity can be measured directly.
The most frequently cited proposed action is induction of telomerase, the enzyme that adds repeat sequences to chromosome ends. Cell-culture work from the originating group reported higher telomerase reverse transcriptase expression and measurable telomere elongation in human somatic cells after exposure. How a four-residue peptide would reach nuclear gene regulation is not established, and no cell-surface receptor or uptake route has been identified. Additional reports describe changes in melatonin secretion, antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation in aged animals, but these findings remain mechanistically unconnected to the telomerase observation.
Published evidence comes mainly from Russian-language journals and from a single research group, with small sample sizes and limited independent replication. A few laboratories outside that group have examined related peptides and reported weaker or absent telomerase effects, so the central claim is best described as contested rather than settled. Rodent studies report modest changes in some ageing markers and in survival, but designs vary and control conditions are often sparse. No large randomised trial in humans has been published, and long-term safety data in healthy populations are correspondingly thin.
=== Phase 2 clinical trial – oral mucositis === The brilacidin trial for oral mucositis (Briladidin-OM) has started in May 2015 and is expected to be completed in December 2017. Brilacidin-OM is an oral rinse of brilacidin in water. Approximately 60 patients who received chemoradiation for head and neck cancer were randomized to receive either brilacidin-OM or the placebo three times daily for seven weeks. Various primary and secondary outcome measures were recorded to assess efficacy of brilacidin-OM to prevent or reduce the severity of oral mucositis in patients receiving chemo-radiation.
=== Male breasts === Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. Anatomically, male breasts do not normally contain lobules and acini that are present in females. In rare instances, it is possible for very few lobules to be present; this makes it possible for some men to develop lobular carcinoma of the breast. Normally, males produce lower levels of estrogens and higher levels of androgens, namely testosterone, which suppress the effects of estrogens in developing excessive breast tissue. In boys and men, abnormal breast development is manifested as gynecomastia, the consequence of a biochemical imbalance between the normal levels of estrogen and testosterone in the male body. Around 70% of boys temporarily develop breast tissue during adolescence. The condition usually resolves by itself within two years. When male lactation occurs, it is considered a symptom of a disorder of the pituitary gland.
Dunnigan-type familial partial lipodystrophy, also known as FPLD Type II and abbreviated as (FPLD2), is a rare monogenic form of insulin resistance characterized by loss of subcutaneous fat from the extremities, trunk, and gluteal region. FPLD recapitulates the main metabolic attributes of the insulin resistance syndrome, including central obesity, hyperinsulinemia, glucose intolerance and diabetes usually type 2, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and early endpoints of atherosclerosis. It can also result in hepatic steatosis. FPLD results from mutations in LMNA gene, which is the gene that encodes nuclear lamins A and C. The condition is named after Scottish doctor Matthew Dunnigan, who pioneered early study into the disorder.
"He (Eannatum) defeated Zuzu, the king of Akshak, from the Antasurra of Ningirsu up to Akshak and destroyed him." "The king of Akshak ran back to his land." "He defeated Kish, Akshak, and Mari from the Antasurra of Ningirsu." "To Eannatum, the ruler of Lagash, Inanna gave the kingship of Kish in addition to ensi-ship of Lagash, because she loved him."
== Classification == Described primarily based on the type of biochemical group transferred, transferases can be divided into ten categories (based on the EC Number classification). These categories comprise over 450 different unique enzymes. In the EC numbering system, transferases have been given a classification of EC2. Hydrogen is not considered a functional group when it comes to transferase targets; instead, hydrogen transfer is included under oxidoreductases, due to electron transfer considerations.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A transdermal patch is a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver a specific dose of medication through the skin and into the bloodstream. An advantage of a transdermal drug delivery route over other types of medication delivery (such as oral, topical, intravenous, or intramuscular) is that the patch provides a controlled release of the medication into the patient, usually through either a porous membrane covering a reservoir of medication or through body heat melting thin layers of medication embedded in the adhesive. The main disadvantage to transdermal delivery systems stems from the fact that the skin is a very effective barrier; as a result, only medications whose molecules are small enough to penetrate the skin can be delivered by this method. The first commercially available prescription patch was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in December 1979. These patches administered scopolamine for motion sickness. In order to overcome restriction from the skin, researchers have developed microneedle transdermal patches (MNPs), which consist of an array of microneedles, which allows a more versatile range of compounds or molecules to be passed through the skin without having to micronize the medication beforehand. MNPs offer the advantage of controlled release of medication and simple application without medical professional assistance required. With advanced MNPs technology, drug delivery can be specified for local usage, for example skin whitener MNPs that are applied to the face.
In North America: Alphora, Delmar and NAEJA, all Canada. AMRI, Aptuit, Cambridge Major, ChemBridge, Innocentive, Irix Pharmaceuticals and PharmEco, all USA. In Europe: Carbogen-Amcis, Switzerland; Chemcomm, Germany; ChemDiv, Russia; Clauson-Kaas, Denmark; Enamine Ltd, Ukraine; Girindus, Germany; Nerviano Medical Sciences, Italy; Recipharm, Sweden; Serichim, Italy; Solvias, Switzerland, Netherlands. In Asia: BioDuro, Medicilon, Pharmaron and WuXi AppTec, all China; Acoris, Aptuit Laurus, Biocon/Syngene, Chembiotek, Chempartner and ProCitius, all India; NARD Institute and Riken, both Japan. The business of CROs is usually done through a "pay for service" arrangement. Unlike manufacturing companies, invoicing of CROs is not based on unit product price, but on full-time equivalents (FTEs), or the cost of a scientist working one year on a given customer assignment. Companies offering both contract research and manufacturing services (CRAMS) combine the activities of CROs and CMOs. Their history is either a forward integration of a CRO, which adds industrial scale capabilities, or backwards integration of a CMO. As there are only limited synergies (>90% of the projects end at the sample preparation stage), it is questionable if one-stop shops really fulfil a need. Large fine chemical companies consider the preparation of samples more as marketing tool (and expense) rather than a profit contributor.
Oxycodone/aspirin (trade name Percodan) is a combination drug marketed by Endo Pharmaceuticals. It is a tablet containing a mixture of 325 mg (5 grains) of aspirin and 4.8355 mg of oxycodone HCl (equivalent to 4.3346 mg of oxycodone as the free base); it is an opioid/non-opioid combination used to treat moderate to moderately severe pain. The safety of the combination during pregnancy has not been established, although aspirin is generally contraindicated during pregnancy, and the drug has been placed in pregnancy category D. Inactive ingredients include D&C Yellow 10, FD&C Yellow 6, microcrystalline cellulose, and corn starch. Percodan was first marketed by DuPont Pharmaceuticals and prescribed in the United States in 1950. Once a widely prescribed painkiller, it has largely been replaced by alternative oxycodone compounds containing paracetamol (acetaminophen) instead of aspirin, such as Percocet.
=== Approval rate === While over 150 cerebroprotectants have been tested in clinical trials, as of 2022 only the above two cerebroprotectants are approved, though several clinical trials for other drugs are ongoing. The approval rate has been less than 2%, which is low compared to the overall approval rate of all drugs brought into clinical trials in all disease areas from 2011 to 2022 which was 7.9%. It is also much lower than the relatively high success rate for devices to treat acute ischemic stroke, as there have been at least 5 different clot removal devices approved since 2015.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Advantages and disadvantages === There is a wide variety of biological insecticides with differing attributes, but in general the following has been described. They are easier, faster and cheaper to register, usually with lower mammalian toxicity. They are more specific, and thus preserve beneficial insects and biodiversity in general. This makes them compatible with IPM regimes. They degrade rapidly causing less impact on the environment. They have a shorter withholding period. The spectrum of control is narrow. They are less effective and prone to adverse ambient conditions. They degrade rapidly and are thus less persistent. They are slower to act. They are more expensive, have a shorter shelf-life, and are more difficult to source. They require more specialised knowledge to use.
On 21 July 2011, following the exclusion of the original Salernitana club, Salerno mayor Vincenzo De Luca, in compliance with Article 52 of N.O.I.F., assigned the new title to Marco Mezzaroma, brother-in-law of Lazio owner and chairman Claudio Lotito. The new club was admitted to Serie D under the denomination of Salerno Calcio. In the 2011–12 season, Salernitana was immediately promoted to Lega Pro Seconda Divisione after winning Group G of Serie D. On 12 July 2012, the club was renamed US Salernitana 1919. In the 2012–13 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione season, Salernitana finished first in Girone B, and was promoted to Lega Pro Prima Divisione. This was the second consecutive promotion for the team. Finally Salernitana won Group C of Lega Pro and returned Serie B in 2014–15 season. After several seasons at Serie B level, Salernitana won promotion to Serie A at the end of the 2020–21 Serie B season under the tenure of head coach Fabrizio Castori, finishing in 2nd place behind champions Empoli. Promotion was secured with a 3–0 victory over Pescara on the final matchday. Salernitana's return to Serie A however required Lotito and Mezzaroma to sell the club, due to Italian football laws not allowing two clubs from the same owner to play in the same league. On 7 July 2021, the FIGC Federal Council approved the trust of Salernitana to take control of the club, meaning it was officially enrolled in Serie A for the first time in 23 years.
Are, or think they may be, pregnant Have abnormal vaginal bleeding that has not been explained (controversial) Have untreated cervical or uterine cancer Have, or may have, breast cancer Have abnormalities of the cervix or uterus (controversial) Have had pelvic inflammatory disease within the past three months Have had an STI such as chlamydia or gonorrhea within the past three months Have liver disease or tumor Have an allergy to levonorgestrel or any of the inactive ingredients included in the device Insertion of an IUD is acceptable after a dilation and evacuation (D&E) abortion (second-trimester abortion), but may be associated with a higher expulsion rate. To reduce the risk of infection, insertion of an IUD is not recommended for women that have had a medical abortion but have not yet had an ultrasound to confirm that the abortion was complete, or that have not yet had their first menstruation following the medical abortion. A full list of contraindications can be found in the WHO Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use and the CDC United States Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic tetrapeptide. Its sequence was derived from research on peptide fractions of bovine pineal extract, and the intact AEDG sequence has not been demonstrated as an abundant free peptide in human tissue.
AEDG is the one-letter code for the four amino acids alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine in that order. The same molecule is written in three-letter form as Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly.
Identity is normally confirmed by mass spectrometry against the calculated mass of roughly 390.35 g/mol. Purity is then estimated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection.
It is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, often abbreviated AEDG. The molecule is linear and contains no modified residues, so it is fully described by its sequence.