A practical reference on epitalon: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2026-05-13 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
In its supplied form epitalon is a white to off-white powder, usually lyophilized and often hygroscopic. It dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers, and it is commonly handled as the acetate or trifluoroacetate salt to improve stability during purification and drying. The amide backbone is labile in aqueous media, so solutions are less durable than the dry solid. Handling notes in the chemical literature therefore emphasize keeping the powder dry, cool and shielded from light until it is dissolved.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, written in single-letter code as AEDG. The four residues are joined by three peptide bonds, giving a linear backbone with no branching and no disulfide bridges. Its calculated molecular mass for the free form is approximately 390.3 daltons, a figure that rises when the compound is supplied as an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt. Because the chain is short, the molecule is defined entirely by its residue order rather than by any folded three-dimensional structure.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the residue sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons, and it is usually supplied as a lyophilised trifluoroacetate or acetate salt. The compound was derived from a pineal gland extract called epithalamin, a heterogeneous preparation investigated in the former Soviet Union. Researchers associated with the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology described the tetrapeptide as a constituent fragment of that extract. Commercial material is offered as a laboratory reagent rather than as a finished pharmaceutical product.
Literature searches for this compound must account for several spelling variants. Indexing databases contain epitalon, epithalon, epithalone, and AEDG, and relevant records are scattered across Russian-language and English-language journals that do not consistently cross-cite. Early publications describe the parent extract as a mixture of many peptides, whereas later work addresses the single synthetic tetrapeptide. That shift in nomenclature complicates comparison between studies, because extract data and tetrapeptide data are sometimes cited interchangeably. A search strategy omitting the alternate spellings will return an incomplete set of references.
Reported biological findings come mainly from cell culture and rodent experiments. Those studies describe changes in telomerase catalytic subunit expression, melatonin rhythm amplitude, and antioxidant enzyme activity after peptide exposure. Human data are sparse and consist of small trials with limited blinding and inconsistent endpoints. The proposed mechanisms remain hypotheses rather than established facts, and there is no consensus on whether effects observed in animals carry over to people. Independent replication outside the original research groups is limited, which is a recognised gap in the published literature.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic tetrapeptide | Four residues, linear chain |
| Residue sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Single-letter form AEDG |
| Calculated mass | 390.3 daltons | Value for the free, uncharged form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Usually supplied lyophilized |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Often handled as a salt form |
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the amino acid sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly or AEDG. It was developed by the Russian researcher Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues during work on peptide bioregulators derived from the pineal gland. The compound is short enough to be produced by standard solid-phase peptide synthesis and is typically handled as a lyophilized white powder. Its small size distinguishes it from larger pineal peptides such as epithalamin, a complex extract from which the tetrapeptide was conceptually derived.
The four residues give epitalon a molecular formula of C14H22N4O9 and a molecular weight near 390.35 daltons. The presence of two acidic residues, glutamate and aspartate, makes the free peptide strongly acidic, while the alanine and glycine ends provide neutral, nonpolar character. This combination produces a molecule with substantial water solubility. Because there are no cysteine, methionine, or tryptophan residues, the peptide lacks the most common oxidation-sensitive side chains, which simplifies handling compared with many longer peptides.
The proposed relationship between epitalon and pineal function is a central part of its background. Khavinson's group reported that short peptides corresponding to regions of larger pineal proteins could influence gene expression in cells. Epitalon was framed as a synthetic analogue of an active fragment rather than a direct isolation product. Whether the tetrapeptide reproduces the effects of the parent extract is an open question, because comparative studies are limited and the parent extract itself is not a single defined substance.
Residue composition is the property that most cleanly separates verified material from mislabelled samples. Alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine appear in that order from the N-terminus, and the two acidic residues sit in the middle of the chain. Because the peptide is short, it can be produced by solid-phase synthesis and characterised by mass spectrometry without ambiguity. Any reported sample whose measured mass departs substantially from 390 daltons is a different compound or a degraded mixture rather than epitalon.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose four residues are alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and its monoisotopic mass is near 390.35 daltons. The peptide carries two acidic side chains, so it is neutral to negatively charged in most aqueous buffers. Published reference summaries usually list it under both spellings, epitalon and epithalon, and treat the two names as the same material.
The most frequently cited proposed action is induction of telomerase, the enzyme that adds repeat sequences to chromosome ends. Cell-culture work from the originating group reported higher telomerase reverse transcriptase expression and measurable telomere elongation in human somatic cells after exposure. How a four-residue peptide would reach nuclear gene regulation is not established, and no cell-surface receptor or uptake route has been identified. Additional reports describe changes in melatonin secretion, antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation in aged animals, but these findings remain mechanistically unconnected to the telomerase observation.
Published evidence comes mainly from Russian-language journals and from a single research group, with small sample sizes and limited independent replication. A few laboratories outside that group have examined related peptides and reported weaker or absent telomerase effects, so the central claim is best described as contested rather than settled. Rodent studies report modest changes in some ageing markers and in survival, but designs vary and control conditions are often sparse. No large randomised trial in humans has been published, and long-term safety data in healthy populations are correspondingly thin.
=== Non-nutrients === Ethanol (C2H5OH) is not an essential nutrient, but it does supply approximately 29 kilojoules (7 kilocalories) of food energy per gram. For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard serving in the United States is 44 millilitres (1+1⁄2 US fluid ounces), which at 40% ethanol (80 proof) would be 14 grams and 410 kJ (98 kcal). At 50% alcohol, this would be 17.5 g and 513 kJ (122.5 kcal). Wine and beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of 150 and 350 mL (5 and 12 US fl oz), respectively, but these beverages also contribute to food energy intake from components other than ethanol. A 150 mL (5 US fl oz) serving of wine contains 420 to 540 kJ (100 to 130 kcal). A 350 mL (12 US fl oz) serving of beer contains 400 to 840 kJ (95 to 200 kcal). According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8 grams of alcohol per day and men consume on average 15.5 grams per day. Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average ethanol contributions to daily food energy intake are 200 and 450 kJ (48 and 108 kcal), respectively. Alcoholic beverages are considered empty calorie foods because, while providing energy, they contribute no essential nutrients. By definition, phytochemicals include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible plants. Included as nutritional constituents are provitamin A carotenoids, whereas those without nutrient status are diverse polyphenols, flavonoids, and lignans that are present in numerous plant foods.
=== Second term as Environment Secretary: 1990–1992 === Heseltine disappointed many of his supporters by not pushing for them to get jobs in Major's new administration. Ian Grist was sacked from the Welsh Office and Michael Mates was eventually given a minister of state position following the 1992 election. There were suggestions that Heseltine might be appointed Home Secretary, but Heseltine advertised his lack of interest in the position, and Major insisted that he had not offered it to him. By contrast, his enthusiasm for industrial policy made it impossible for him to be appointed secretary of state for trade and industry, the job he most coveted. After a handshake of reconciliation on the steps of 10 Downing Street, Major appointed Heseltine to the Environment, the same job he had held a decade earlier. Civil servants found him a secure and mature character in the second interaction, and keener to conciliate local councils, but at the same time a grander and more detached individual, aware that he had already earned a place in history and had the energy of a political heavyweight. In a May 1990 article Heseltine had proposed that the Poll Tax be reformed rather than abolished. He now had a remit to reform it, and invited the opposition parties to take part in his review of options (Labour did not; the Liberal Democrats did, and proposed a local income tax). Heseltine insisted that Michael Portillo, who had been a major cheerleader for the tax, be retained as Minister of State for Local Government.
Conversely, the solvent exposure of different disulfide bonds can be assayed by their rate of reduction in the presence of DTT. DTT can also be used as an oxidizing agent. Its principal advantage is that effectively no mixed-disulfide species are populated, in contrast to other agents such as glutathione. In very rare cases, a DTT adduct may be formed, i.e., the two sulfur atoms of DTT may form disulfide bonds to different sulfur atoms; in such cases, DTT cannot cyclize since it has no such remaining free thiols.
Elizabeth Tracy Mae "Bethe" Wettlaufer (née Parker; born June 10, 1967) is a convicted Canadian serial killer and former registered nurse who confessed to murdering eight senior citizens and attempting to murder six other people in southwestern Ontario between 2007 and 2016. With a total of 14 victims either killed or injured by her actions, she is described as one of the deadliest serial killers in Canadian history.
=== Mitochondrial function and morphology === Prohibitins are assembled into a ring-like structure with 16–20 alternating Phb1 and Phb2 subunits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The precise molecular function of the PHB complex is not clear, but a role as chaperone for respiratory chain proteins or as a general structuring scaffold required for optimal mitochondrial morphology and function are suspected. Recently, prohibitins have been demonstrated to be positive, rather than negative, regulators of cell proliferation in both plants and mice.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Prognosis == Patient response to treatment will vary based on age, health, and the tolerance to medications and therapies. Metastasis occurs in about 39% of patients, most commonly to the lung. Features associated with poor prognosis include a large primary tumor (over 5 cm across), high grade disease, co-existent neurofibromatosis, and the presence of metastases. It is a rare tumor type, with a relatively poor prognosis in children. In addition, MPNSTs are extremely threatening in NF1. In a 10-year institutional review for the treatment of chemotherapy for MPNST in NF1, which followed the cases of 1 per 2,500 in 3,300 live births, chemotherapy did not seem to reduce mortality, and its effectiveness should be questioned. Although with recent approaches with the molecular biology of MPNSTs, new therapies and prognostic factors are being examined.
== Signs and symptoms == As with other cerebral creatine deficiency syndromes, individuals affected with AGAT deficiency are intellectually disabled and can have seizures. They can often have muscle weakness. These symptoms are caused by the lack of creatine in skeletal muscles and in the brain. AGAT deficiency was first identified in 2000, in a pair of sisters aged 4 and 6. Both sisters had severe intellectual disability.
Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are prostaglandin D2 and oxidised nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). Its products are 15-dehydro-prostaglandin D2, reduced NADPH, and a proton. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-OH group of donor with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is (5Z,13E)-(15S)-9alpha,15-dihydroxy-11-oxoprosta-5,13-dienoate:NADP+ 15-oxidoreductase. Other names in common use include prostaglandin-D 15-dehydrogenase (NADP+), dehydrogenase, prostaglandin D2, NADP+-PGD2 dehydrogenase, dehydrogenase, 15-hydroxyprostaglandin (nicotinamide adenine, dinucleotide phosphate), 15-hydroxy PGD2 dehydrogenase, 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (NADP+), NADP+-dependent 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase, prostaglandin D2 dehydrogenase, NADP+-linked 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase, NADP+-specific 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase, NADP+-linked prostaglandin D2 dehydrogenase, and 15-hydroxyprostaglandin-D dehydrogenase (NADP+). This enzyme participates in arachidonic acid metabolism.
== Financing and valuation == StoreDot raised over 6 million dollars in an initial investment round, and by the end of 2014 had raised another 42 million dollars. It raised another 62 million dollars by the end of 2017. The company was in negotiations in March 2021 for a SPAC merger at a $3.5 billion valuation. A further funding round of 70-80 million dollars in 2022 gave it a $1.5 billion valuation. The company plans as of 2023 to raise further capital in 2024 or 2025 in order to build up its silicon nanoparticles supply chain and secure dedicated manufacturing capacity for its batteries from existing manufacturers. StoreDot signed a SPAC merger in 2025 at a valuation of $800M. The merger was cancelled in 2026 after the company could not secure $30M in cash for its operations. Financial journalists estimated in February 2026 that StoreDot has funding for a few more months of operations.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Tobacco === Polonium-210 in tobacco contributes to many of the cases of lung cancer worldwide. Most of this polonium is derived from lead-210 deposited on tobacco leaves from the atmosphere; the lead-210 is a product of radon-222 gas, much of which appears to originate from the decay of radium-226 from fertilizers applied to the tobacco soils. The presence of polonium in tobacco smoke has been known since the early 1960s. Some of the world's biggest tobacco firms researched ways to remove the substance—to no avail—over a 40-year period. The results were never published.
Synthetic biology (SynBio) is a multidisciplinary scientific field that applies the principles of engineering to develop new biological parts, devices, and systems or to redesign existing systems found in nature. The field encompasses a broad range of methodologies from various disciplines, such as biochemistry, biotechnology, biomaterials, material science/engineering, genetic engineering, molecular biology, molecular engineering, systems biology, membrane science, biophysics, chemical and biological engineering, electrical and computer engineering, control engineering and evolutionary biology. It includes designing and constructing biological modules, biological systems, and biological machines, or re-designing existing biological systems for useful purposes. Additionally, it is the branch of science that focuses on the new abilities of engineering into existing organisms to redesign them for useful purposes. In order to produce predictable and robust systems with novel functionalities that do not already exist in nature, it is also necessary to apply the engineering paradigm of systems design to biological systems. According to the European Commission, this possibly involves a molecular assembler based on biomolecular systems such as the ribosome.
Michael Balint (Hungarian: Bálint Mihály; 3 December 1896 – 31 December 1970) Hungarian Jewish psychoanalyst convert to Christianity who spent most of his adult life in England. He was a proponent of the Object Relations school and author of numerous academic texts and monographs on psychiatry; was attached to the Tavistock Clinic; in 1968 Balint became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society; his wife was noted psychoanalyst and author, Enid Balint, who directed British Psychoanalytical Society (now Institute of Psychoanalysis). A volume of her papers, Before I was I: Psychoanalysis and the Imagination, was published in 1993. Simon Baron-Cohen (b.1958); clinical psychologist ; professor of developmental psychopathology at University of Cambridge; director of the university's Autism Research Centre and a Fellow of Trinity College; was knighted for services to people with autism; was awarded the Medical Research Council (MRC) Millennium Medal; He is the 2026 recipient of the Grawemeyer Award in Psychology. brother of Sacha Baron Cohen Zygmunt Bauman (19 November 1925 – 9 January 2017) highly influential Polish Jewish writer, sociologist and philosopher, writing on postmodern consumerism and liquid modernity.
== Role in wound healing == HB-EGF is the predominant growth factor in the epithelialization required for cutaneous wound healing. The mitogenic and migratory effects of HB-EGF on keratinocytes and fibroblasts promotes dermal repair and angiogenesis necessary for wound healing and is a major component of wound fluids. HB-EGF displays target cell specificity during the early stages of wound healing being released by macrophages, monocytes, and keratinocytes. HB-EGF cell surface binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans enhances mitogen promoting capabilities increasing the rate of skin wound healing, decreasing human skin graft healing times, and promotes rapid healing of ulcers, burns, and epidermal split thickness wounds.
=== Prioritisation of foodborne pathogens === The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and The World Health Organization have published a global ranking of foodborne parasites using a multicriteria ranking tool concluding that Taenia solium was the most relevant, followed by Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, and Toxoplasma gondii. The same method was used regionally to rank the most important foodborne parasites in Europe ranking Echinococcus multilocularis of highest relevance, followed by Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The peptide contains four residues in the order alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, abbreviated AEDG. The chain is linear and held together by three peptide bonds. Its calculated mass for the uncharged free form is about 390.3 daltons.
Epithalamin refers to a crude preparation derived from bovine pineal tissue, which contains many components. Epitalon is a single synthetic tetrapeptide identified from that material and produced by chemical synthesis. The two names are sometimes confused because early reports treated the synthetic peptide as an active fragment of the extract.
It has been registered for clinical use in Russia, where it is associated with a small family of short peptides. In most other jurisdictions it is not an approved medicine and is traded as a research chemical. Regulatory status varies by country and changes over time.
It is based on epithalamin, a peptide-rich preparation obtained from pineal gland tissue and studied in the former Soviet Union. Researchers later identified the tetrapeptide AEDG as a constituent fragment of that material. Modern supplies are produced by chemical synthesis rather than tissue extraction.